Boiling and heavy water:

This is another myth that was refuted 60 years ago, but continues to spread. Instead of a hydrogen atom, heavy water contains one (HDO) or two isotopes (D2O), which is called deuterium. Its content in water is approximately 0.033%, which is negligible.

Firstly, heavy water is always found in natural sources, and since its physicochemical properties are similar to ordinary, it is not removed during treatment.

As for increasing its concentration when heated. Today, there is the only way to produce heavy water – multi-stage electrolysis, i.e. transmission of electric current with subsequent concentration of heavy water near one of the electrodes. In your kettle, this process does not exactly happen. And boiling points are so different that, given the salt composition, heavy water may well evaporate along with ordinary water.

To bring the concentration of heavy water to just 0.15% by boiling, you need to spend a mass of water, which is 300 million times the mass of the earth.Heavy water is also treated or softened by water softener plants now a days

Why boiled water has a specific taste:

During heating, oxygen evaporates from the water. In order to restore oxygen balance, it is possible to transfer fluid several times in a row from one container to another.

Harm of re-boiling:

Given the information mentioned above, you yourself can guess that this assumption also does not carry a semantic load. No matter how much you boil water, nothing in its composition will change. And if it is purified water, even more so.That,s why water softener plant is used to ensure health.

Conclusions:

Boiling should be used as a method of heating water for tasty tea and coffee, but you should not consider it as a method of water treatment. To drink tasty and healthy water or tea, you must first clean it.

Only available tools are needed

• Cheap method
• Simple execution
• most impurities are not removed
• limited amount of water
• energy consumption

We hope that we were able to answer the most common questions. If you have anything else to ask, write in the comments.

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Boiled water:

Recently, more and more often the question has been raised about whether it is possible to drink boiled water. In order to understand this issue, you first need to understand what happens to water during boiling.Boiled water has similar taste to softened water  by a water softener plant.

When heated to a temperature close to 100 ℃, water begins to change from a gaseous state to steam. It is worth noting that nothing changes in its molecular structure. It does not become “heavy”, more dirty, etc. Let us consider each aspect more deeply.

Hardness salts or why does scale form?

The scale is formed mainly by calcium and magnesium bicarbonates. It is worth noting that the presence of scale does not indicate the harm or danger of the source water, but only that it contains calcium and magnesium salts, which in certain quantities are useful for the body.

Organic and inorganic substances:

Some organic and inorganic compounds that tap water may contain tend to evaporate, unless of course they enter into further reactions. For example, chlorine evaporates when the temperature rises to 30-40 ℃, trihalomethanes (carcinogenic organochlorine) begin to evaporate at 61 ℃ (chloroform) and, in general, the boiling point, and, accordingly, the evaporation of this group of substances to 100 ℃. This also applies to benzene. In this case, it is crucial that the water boils in an open container and without a closed lid, as this will lead to the re-condensation of these substances. It is important to note that the effectiveness of boiling to remove such substances has not been studied, so you should not rely on it.

It is also important to understand that more complex organics, ions of salts of heavy metals, nitrates will not evaporate. And if the source water is polluted, as a result, most of the pollution will remain in its composition.

The effect of boiling on microorganisms:

Despite the fact that the water on the centralized treatment systems is disinfected with chlorine, very often it, oxidizing biological fouling in pipes, simply does not reach the consumer. And at that moment when chlorine is no longer working, and the water still moves through the pipes, it can be secondarily infected by both harmless and pathogenic microorganisms. As for well water, it usually does not contain bacteria, but wells are often dirty. The boiling process is the easiest method of disinfecting water. It kills most microorganisms. But it is important to note that the traditional bringing the liquid to a boil and turning off the kettle is not sufficient, the water should be boiled for at least five minutes, and optimally – 20.

Yes, it cannot be denied that boiling kills germs. But, for example, the hepatitis B virus can withstand up to 30 minutes, spores of the causative agent of botulism die only after six hours of boiling. Based on this, if you are not sure about the quality of the source water, you should not rely on it as an effective method of disinfection. Water softener plantalso kills germs

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Scope of application:

1. Ultrafiltration, due to its advantages, has replaced the traditional water treatment schemes for centralized urban water supply, in particular in the process of groundwater post-treatment.It has similar features  to water softener plant.

The image shows the Jeyran Batan drinking water plant, which supplies drinking water to the Azerbaijani cities of Baku and the Absheron Peninsula.

2. Pretreatment of water from surface sources before industrial reverse osmosis systems in industry and at desalination plants of sea water.

Advantages and disadvantages of ultrafiltration

Benefits:

• High efficiency for bleaching and sterilization of water;
• Low working pressure;
• Long service life of membrane elements;
• Compact arrangement in comparison with traditional schemes;
• Full automation.It has almost similar features to a water softener plant.

Disadvantages:

• Inefficiency against viruses and mineral contaminants – hardness salts, heavy metals, etc .;
• The need for regular flushing;
• High cost of equipment;

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– amphoteric – they contain different groups, are used in narrow areas.

An important place in industrial water treatment is occupied by mixtures of cation exchangers . For example, DOW Amberlite resin . (On the image)

In this case, cation exchange resin absorbs mainly metal ions, replacing them with hydrogen (H +), and anion exchange exchanges anions (sulfates, organic acids, hydrocarbons) with hydroxide ions. Hydroxide and hydrogen mutually neutralize to form water.

Upon contact with water, cation exchange resin absorbs positive metal ions and other ionic substances contained in water, releasing an equivalent amount of hydrogen ions. Anion exchange resin absorbs negative ions (bicarbonates, sulfates, organic acids, etc.), releasing an equivalent amount of hydroxide ions. Such resins are used to desalinate water as a second stage. The resin is not regenerated and discharged after the exhaustion of the resource, or it is separated and regenerated separately.

Equipment

The traditional softening system is a cylinder, inside of which there is a filter material and a tank salt-solvent.

The filter is connected to the cold water supply. It passes through a pre-installed main cartridge filter, which traps impurities larger than 5 microns and enters the filter housing (1). Water seeps through the resin layer (2), which exchanges certain cations or anions from water for ions from its surface. Purified water is supplied to the consumer through the lower distribution device (4) and the central pipe (4).

When the resource of the resin ends, even before the breakthrough of the pollutant, the filter is switched to the washing mode. In modern equipment, automation is capable of producing this process in a fully automatic mode with minimal user involvement.

Typically, regeneration involves 4 stages:

• rinsing with a reverse current of water to remove mechanical impurities;
• Rinsing with a solution of reagents from a tank of a salt solvent.
• Rinsing with direct current of water to remove excess reagents.
• Filling a salt tank with water.

Another common design of such a water  filter for home is a compact unit that combines a tank with cation exchange resin and a salt solvent in one housing. It is used preferably in everyday life to soften water.

Water treatment:

 1. Steam and hot water boilers; 

2. Production of drinks and food; 

3. Chemical and pharmaceutical industries, hydrometallurgy. 

4. Nuclear and thermal power plants

 5. Domestic water softening or water filter for home

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Ion exchange resins:

Ion exchange resins are porous polymers that have a gel macro- or macroporous structure of different densities. On the surface of the pores are covalently bound ionic groups with exchanging ions fixed on the surface.It acts as an water filter for home

Granules usually have the correct spherical shape when obtained by polymerization, and the irregular shape if obtained by polycondensation. The size of the granules, depending on the functional needs, can range from 10-20 microns to several millimeters.

Roughly speaking, they consist of a framework – a matrix and functional groups (fixed ions) that are rigidly fixed to the matrix and interact with counterions.

Resins are divided into three main types: cation exchangers and anion exchangers.

Cationites – counterions are cations (have a positive charge, for example, H + , Na + );

Strongly acid cation exchangers — have a sulfo group —SO 3 and a phosphorus group —RO 3 as functional groups . Spherical granules with a yellow or amber hue are characteristic. The most common cation exchangers. Have high exchange capacity, high osmotic resistance (up to 120 of C) operate at any level of pH. In most cases, they are used to soften water and are supplied in sodium form, due to which they are well regenerated by sodium chloride or edible salt.It has similar features as of water filter for home.

If we talk about the market, it is worth mentioning such popular resins DOWEX Marathon C (exchange capacity – 2000 mEq / L), Dowex HCR-S / S (1900 mg / eq-L). Ecosoft company produces high-quality Ukrainian analogue of Ecolite CK (1800 mEq / l).

Weakly acid cation exchangers contain, as functional carboxyl groups, COO, OH. They are painted slightly green or white. They are well restored by perchloric acid and are also popular as a component of mixtures.

– anion exchangers – the anion (OH – , Cl – ) plays the role of the counterion . They are used mainly in industrial processes, since they work only in an alkaline environment.

Strongly basic anion exchangers have a quaternary ammonium group as functional. Characteristic yellow or light yellow color. They are often used to separate metal ions at any pH. Used to remove various anions, including bicarbonates, sulfates, etc.

Weakly basic (low basic) anion exchangers have amino groups of varying degrees of substitution as functional groups: – NH 2 + , = NH + . They have a narrow application, mainly in chromatographic analysis. Work only in an acidic environment.

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Ion exchange technology:

Ion exchange is one of the most effective water softening technologies. It is widely used both in domestic conditions and in industry.

The ion exchange process is a reversible chemical reaction during which an exchange of ions occurs between the medium and the surface of the ion exchanger. It acts as an water filter for home

The principle of ion exchange:

Let’s try to show the principle of work on the example of softening or cationization of water.

In the process of purification, ions that are in water (for example calcium and magnesium) “knock out” counterions (for example sodium) from the matrix and replace them. It is important to note that they are fixed stoichiometrically – one Ca 2+ ion will replace 2 Na + ions .

After most of the surface of the ion exchange resin is occupied by calcium and magnesium ions, regeneration is necessary. It consists in the treatment of ion exchange resin with a concentrated solution of reagents. In the case of water softening, this is a concentrated brine of NaCl or HCl. After washing, the solution with ions washed from the resin is discharged into the sewer and the resin can again purify the water.

Ion exchange materials:

Ionite Properties:

1. Working exchange capacity – the amount of ions that can be absorbed by a certain volume of resin, expressed in mEq / l, until the breakthrough. For example, for high-quality cation exchangers it can reach 3000 mg / l.

2. Mechanical strength (abrasion) – characterizes the ability of the ion exchanger to resist abrasion during filtration and washing, loading and unloading. The service life of some materials reaches ten years.

3. Osmotic stability – the ability to withstand changes in the composition of water without cracking granules.

4. Chemical stability – the ability of a material to withstand the effects of oxidizing agents (chlorine, nitric acid, etc.), changing the pH of the medium.

5. Thermal stability – temperature limits that will allow the loading of filters to work without destroying the granules. The operating temperature for cation exchangers reaches 150 o C, for anion exchangers – not higher than 60  o C, maximum 80  o C.

Natural ion exchangers:

As ion exchangers, both natural substances and artificially produced polymers are used.

Zeolites, some clay minerals with a silicate structure, and feldspars are very widely used as natural substances. These materials have a relatively small exchange capacity. On average, it is 3 – 5 mEq / l, rare minerals 8 – 11 mEq / l (this applies to feldspars). In modern water treatment, zeolites are not used as ion exchangers, but are widely used as mechanical water filter for home loads.

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Modern sorbents for water purification :
Nowadays, activated carbon is used for sorption water purification. Granular forms are usually used because they are more convenient to use. Depending on the quality of the feedstock and production technology, the specific surface area of ​​such coals reaches 800 – 1300 m² / g. 

One of the largest manufacturers is the American company Calgon Carbon. Products are delivered to Ukraine. Coal obtained from coconut shells is mainly used in water treatment technologies.

On the diagram you can see what the global distribution of activated carbon production looks like.

It is worth noting that there are alternatives to coal. These include new synthetic sorbents, such as HumiSorb – a component of the multifunctional Ecomix mixture, which is able to comprehensively purify water from organic compounds, hardness salts and iron.

Equipment

Modern water purification equipment is implemented as cylinder  water filters for home with a capacity of 0.6 to 25 – 30 cubic meters per hour. The performance of such systems is determined by the volume of activated carbon and, accordingly, the size of the filter. 

The principle of operation of such systems is that water pre-purified from mechanical particles from the pipeline through the distribution system is fed into the filter housing (cylinder) and distributed over the thickness of the load. Then it is diverted through the central pipe to the consumer. 

After a certain time, the system is regenerated. It involves flushing the load at high speed with a reverse current of water.

High-quality activated carbons, depending on the quality of the water, can be used for more than five years with proper use. 

After this period, the material is replaced. In its commercially available thermal regeneration, which provides a firing furnace at 800 – 850 of C to remove the organic particles and reactivation. 

Another modification of the carbon filter is cartridge cartridge. It is a classic bulb type BB20 or BB10, which is mounted in the pipeline. A cartridge with granular activated carbon or a carbon block made of pressed powder raw materials is installed as a filter element . The principle of operation can be seen in the figure below.

Such solutions have a rather small resource (50-60 m3 for the BB20 filter) and should be replaced when exhausted. This resource is enough to purify water in an apartment with 2-3 residents for about 3 months. They are widely used in everyday life and in the production of drinking water (bottling points, kiosks, etc.). 

History:

Activated carbon water filter for  home been used for water purification for a very long time. The first mention of this is found in Sanskrit of ancient India. The ancient Romans used it to purify water. At the end of the 18th century, people began to use activated carbon for industrial purposes in the pharmacological and sugar industries. And already in the XX century, it began to be widely used in water treatment for water clarification.

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Sorption Technologies:

Sorption technologies are used in water treatment to clarify water and improve its organoleptic qualities by removing dissolved organic substances and gases. 

In water treatment technology, activated carbons and others (often artificial sorbents) are used to reduce the color and odors of water. In particular, they are effective against natural humic acids, a wide range of industrial organic compounds, including phenols, organochlorine, etc., effectively reduce the chlorine content, and indicators of total organic carbon. These processes make it possible to use it in the sugar, food and alcohol industries, in complex chemical industries. Some craftsmen use activated carbon to clean moonshine from fusel oils. 

In relation to liquid and gaseous media, including water, the concept of adsorption is used. This is the process of absorption of gases, vapors, substances from a solution or gas mixture by the surface layer of a solid (liquid). These absorbers are called adsorbents, and the absorbed substance is called adsorbate. 

Adsorption mechanism:

Consider this process using activated carbon as an example. If you examine its particle under a microscope, you can see many protrusions, recesses and peaks that significantly increase its surface and form porosity. There are several types of pores that are classified by size: macro, meso and micro.

There are two types of adsorption – physical and chemical:

The physical is a mechanism that occurs due to the presence of special (van der Waals) interactions. They cause the attraction of molecules to the surface of the adsorbent. This physical process has a reversible nature. This means that part of the sorbed substance under certain conditions (temperature increase, changing the composition of water, etc.) can return to water. Due to this, activated carbons can be partially restored by washing with a reverse current of water.

If the process is complicated by a chemical reaction, then chemical adsorption (chemisorption) occurs, it is not characterized by the presence of reverse reactions. This means that if substances are fixed on the surface, they will not return to water.

It is worth noting that both processes occur simultaneously without separation in time. 

Sorbents:

The most popular sorbent for water treatment is activated carbon water filter for home. It is obtained from natural plant materials (wood, coconut shells, apricot kernels, etc.) or minerals (bituminous and bituminous coals). The production technology is based on burning in special furnaces and subsequent activation. 

There are three activation methods:

• treatment with solutions of certain substances and subsequent high-temperature treatment without access of air (to exclude combustion);
• treatment with hot steam and / or carbon dioxide at 800 – 850 o C;
• treatment with hot steam with a limited amount of air to burn a certain amount of coal. Or treatment with water filter for home.

The value of the specific pore surface of the best brands of activated carbon can reach 1800–2200 m² per 1 g of coal.

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Microorganisms present in water pose no less than other impurities hazard to human health. Therefore, effective disinfection of drinking water is a very important and integral stage of its purification. Today, it is the disinfection of drinking water that is the main problem for Pakistanand many African countries, where microbiological contamination of water is the main cause of frequent mass epidemics of infectious diseases among the population. The use of well-known and effective disinfection methods, as well as integrated water treatment, in this situation is difficult and most often impossible. At the same time, especially for these complex cases, scientists have developed an affordable and quite effective way of disinfecting water in ordinary PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles under direct sunlight.Disinfection can only be treated by industrial Ro plant .

For developed countries, armed with a full arsenal of effective technologies, water disinfection would not seem to be problematic. Nevertheless, as recent studies have shown, the problem still exists. So, many types of microorganisms eventually get used to disinfecting reagents and even UV radiation. Resistant (resistant) strains of microbes are formed, for the removal of which it is necessary to increase the dosage of reagents (in the case of UV radiation intensity), which is only a temporary solution.

In addition, water disinfection plays an important role not only in drinking water supply, but also in industrial ro plant (Air and Water Transport №3, 2012). Since, various microorganisms pose a threat not only to human health, but also to the effective operation and functioning of various equipment and processes.

Thus, today the search for new alternative methods and methods of disinfecting water is important and urgent. The editorial board of the VVT ​​magazine will inform you about new achievements and developments in this direction.

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Today, various companies produce compact, easy-to-use ultrafiltration or industrial Ro plant cartridges, which are not inferior to UV lamps in terms of disinfection efficiency. Cartridges of this type are also recommended to be used after the storage tank for additional purification of water from possible microbiological contamination. What to do if you use jug or flow type filters where the use of ultraviolet and ultrafiltration or industrial Ro plant  is impossible or impractical? First of all, water after these types of filters can be boiled. It no longer contains chlorine, it is partially purified from natural organic impurities, so boiling in this case is very effective and safer. At the same time, the optimal and more reliable solution to this problem is the use of bactericidal properties in household filters. Most often, standard charges (coal, ion-exchange resins) containing silver ions are used for this purpose. The bactericidal properties of this noble metal have long been known, but perhaps not everyone knows that silver also has toxic properties (see editorial note No. 4). Therefore, The basic requirement for sorbents based on it is as follows: metal ions must be firmly fixed on the material, in order to avoid the possibility of its ingress into drinking water. So, for a long time, activated carbon containing silver ions was used. Unfortunately, this sorbent did not acquire widespread use, since it not only did not ensure proper disinfection of water, but also significantly increased its microbiological composition. An effective sorbent, devoid of these shortcomings, was developed by the research and production association and is actively used today in the filters for drinking water of TM Nasha Voda. Sorbent is a highly porous polymer material containing silver nanoparticles. Since the particles are in a carefully fixed state, they do not wash out and do not fall into purified water. At the same time, microorganisms present in water come into contact with silver on the surface of the polymer material and die. Thus, this biocidal sorbent simultaneously provides both the proper disinfection of water and its compliance with quality standards for silver content. In addition to all of the above, one of the most reliable and convenient solutions for local water treatment is the use of integrated water treatment systems. The latest representatives in this area are the P’U product line manufactured by Ecosoft LLC. Depending on the modification, P’U systems can include up to 9 stages of purification, which makes it possible to obtain ultrapure, with improved taste properties and, most importantly, safe bacteriostable water. The latter is achieved at the final stage of cleaning, where an ultrafiltration membrane is used to disinfect water after the storage tank.

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